Where did I go wrong in life My independent life Essay

Where did I go wrong in life My independent life - Essay Example Life was too perfect and boring with no sense of adventure and excitement. Finally, my fervent application to numerous agencies bore fruit and my first joining letter came with an attractive pay cheque, with separate room rent. Informing my parents about my decision to move out to a separate apartment in the proximity of my office, I landed into a studio apartment. The feeling was one of elation and ecstasy, for there won't be anybody to check me litter the house, nor will my pa be here to switch off the music when I listen to it full blast. I can watch my favourite TV show, without having to battle over the remote with my brother. I am finally on my own and nobody can dictate me what to and what not to do. With a feeling of euphoria, I started my independent life, which lacked discipline and a complete chaos prevailed at my apartment. I often reach home late and called friends over, partying away the entire night, and go to work the next day without sleeping a wink.

Literacy Instruction and Difficulties with Reading Essay Example for Free

Literacy Instruction and Difficulties with Reading Essay In today’s world the consequences of having students attain low achievement scores in reading can be very detrimental to both individuals and society. Students who are attaining low achievement records in literacy often correlate with the school dropout rate, poverty, and unemployment. Also the gap between reading achievement of poor and middle class students is substantial, calling for a federal regulation to ensure equal opportunities for all students no matter where they may be attending school. The standards movement and evidence-based research can have a great impact on how literacy programs are used in the classroom. Evidence-based reading instruction means that a particular reading program has a record of success. The program was tested with a group of students and there is data to show the result of the research conducted. These programs are reliable and valid in saying that the children can be expected to make adequate gains in reading achievement. Evidence-based research can be very helpful when trying to find the right literacy program to use. As there are many different types of students who learn in different ways, there will never be one single successful method of teaching children to read. When teachers are looking for literacy programs to use they should be investigating how old the students were, their current reading level, what type of setting it took place in, and if it was conducted on a one-on-one or group basis. Teachers want to find programs that have been successful and relate to their own current setting. It is crucial to make sure that the program is applicable to the students and their situation in order to have an opportunity for the program to work. Another great idea is to use this research to create your own programs based on your findings. The teacher is now becoming a teacher-researcher in order to test their own situation with their created program. This is a great way to create a program for your unique students and still have the support of research that has been shown to work. If the program is successful, it is a great idea to share it with other colleagues because it may be affective for them as well. As with any type of instruction method there are always positives and negatives. Evidence-based reading instruction promotes the fact that that particular method has had a record of being successful. Teachers can look into studies that have been tested on students similar to their own, and give these programs a try. They have been shown to be successful and provide instruction that lead to a higher literacy achievement for that group of similar students. In doing this, you know there is a good chance that the method can work with your students, as opposed to trying something new that has no research to back it up. These research studies show why and how the program works, along with providing data showing the difference it has made with the students. As stated earlier, not every child has the capacity to learn the same way. What works for one student, may not work for another. So even though these programs have been shown to work, they are not guaranteed to work for your students. As teachers in the United States we will be teaching students that come from many different cultural backgrounds. Different cultures have different opinions on the best way to educate students, however they all place great value on education for children. Some of these students may just be learning to speak English, while others have lived in the United States for their whole lives. It is important, as the teacher, to get to know each student and their cultural background. This allows you to understand the needs of the child and how they can be met. Discover the child’s strengths and weaknesses and create a plan that can be used to help that child. It is important to know what is important to each student and what may be stressed in the home. The teacher needs to take into consideration how different cultural backgrounds of students may affect the classroom dynamics and learning. Students may also have certain behaviors that are taking place in the classroom, but it could be a cultural reason for why that is taking place. The largest student group identified receiving special education services is students with learning disabilities. A learning disability is a general term that refers to a group of disorders where students may face difficulty. These disorders include learning to read, write, speak, listen, or do math. Out of all the students with learning disabilities about 80% have been diagnosed with having a reading problem. The goal for students with learning disabilities, especially reading disorders, is to be on the same academic level as our general education students. For some this is an attainable goal, where for others it is not. There are many ways we can help these students improve their literacy skills. Since many of these students are reading below grade level we need to provide them with reading materials that are at their current level. If it is too difficult they will become frustrated and may give up. These students need high interest, easy to read books so that they can begin to enjoy reading and see themselves as readers and learners. In today’s schools more than 20% of school aged children speak languages other than English at home. Many of these children have difficulty speaking English and the majority of these students having difficulty are speaking Spanish in their homes. English Language Learners need to be able to read, write and understand the English language in order to become successful in today’s classrooms. We should be focusing on the student’s strengths in order to help them understand English. One strategy is allowing students to read in their native language if they are literate in that language. This allows them to understand the same reading as another child who may be reading it in English. Many times these students are seen as reading on a lower level, but it is only because of a language barrier. They don’t understand how to read in English. There are also many books that come with translations. Having students read a book in their language and then trying to read it in English can be helpful because they understand and know what the story is about, so when they face difficulty understanding the English version they can compare and figure it out. In doing this they can also make connections to many words in their own language by using cognates. This can foster comprehension by activating prior knowledge in both languages. It is important to allow them the opportunity to read in their native language because it offers a sense of comfort and success to the student.

Ac Power Logger Using Mcp39009 Engineering Essay

Ac Power Logger Using Mcp39009 Engineering Essay In this project we are going to record power consumption using MCP3909 by using AVR 5A microcontroller. This MCP 3909 is an energy metering IC with SPI interface and active power pulse output. Where the MCP3909 used in two different phases that can be operated at a time like 1.Output through active pulse power and 2. Waveform obtained as output through SPI interface. For the output real pulse power, the device gives frequency output proportional to instantaneous power. For the waveform output, it gathers data from the current and voltage channel and both are 16 bit second order delta sigma ADC . Through out this project time I learnt to do coding in C programming to get pulse output that shows the consumption of power. This program is developed to use with microcontroller Easy AVR 5A type of AT Mega 16. This program is executed by using AVR Studio by running it through AVR Flash and the output pulse wave form is gathered at AT Mega 16 board and we can check using oscilloscope. Here to have connection between AVR board AT Mega 16 and CPU we use USB which acts like supply and we use USART to transfer data between each other. As in my project I have MCP3909 as separate board I should give correct connection between MCP 3909 and AT Mega 16 correct supply connections. As I am doing project in embedded microcontroller with C programming and output I get is pulse waveform so for better performance and other reasons I took Easy AVR AT Mega 16 development board with 8 KHz frequency. My project is AC power logger using MCP3909 where MCP 3909 is an energy metering IC with SPI interface and active power pulse output. Where the MCP3909 used in two different methods where they can be operated at a time like 1.Output pulse power and 2. Waveform we get as output through SPI interface. For the active real power pulse output, the device gives output frequency which is proportional to instantaneous power. For the waveform output, it gathers data from the current and voltage channel and both are 16 bit second order delta sigma ADC which over samples input signal at frequency equal to MCLK/4 and allows large range of input signals. For channel 0, the increase in the current at channel 0 is done through programmable gain amplifier increase.. As I get pulse count at output when we use oscilloscope to get exact count and good performance I use Easy AVR 5A AT Mega 16 microcontroller. This AT Mega 16 microcontroller allows assembly language and C language programming but I did coding for counting the power consumption using MCP3909 in C language. In this first I gave USB and USART connection between CPU and AT Mega 16 board, here I gave MCP3909 connection with AT Mega 16 and gave current and voltage channel input to MC3909 and I get pulse output this is with out SPI pin not in use but still they should be connected. But for SPI connection program I will give voltage and current with 50hz frequency and take output voltage and current values from the hyper terminal connection and calculate the output values. In this whole project time I began to understand the SPI and USART connection to write program in C language and also understood how the MCP3909 works . The energy meter is a device which is used for electrical measuring, it is used to record electrical energy consumed in specific period of time in terms units Every house, small factory, business establishments, shops, offices etc need at minimum one energy meter to register power consumption. The one who supplies electricity raises bills based on readings shown in energy meter. The one who produces electricity sale the electricity to the electricity boards and board will sale this to costumer. So the data generated by the energy meter is the base to raise bill by the power supplier. This energy meter products are available in single and three phases at different current ratings as per customer requirements. This energy meters are basically electrical and mechanical components. The design of energy meter depends upon which rating of voltage and current meter has to work. In this project the energy metering IC that we take is MCP3909 which is used for supporting IEC 62053 which is standard international meter. It gets the output frequency which is proportional to real power as input so as to access the ADC channel and output of multiplier data. The delta sigma which is 16bit ADC is used to allow large range of currents using the design. The exact or appropriate energy IC is available in the industry which is highly reliable and which has 24-lead SSOP output pin. In this functional as we can see it shows ch0 and ch1 channels where these are inputs and given from the current and voltage transformers .The gains g0 and g1 are also given as input and the dual functionality pin is connected for SPI connections and also for f0, f1,f2. The outputs we take from the active power DTF conversion as HFout and other outputs Fout0 and Fout1 are obtained from stepper motor output drive for active power. The above one is the general block diagram of MCP3909, but the diagram that I use here shows the diagram with the connections , this shows how the MCP 3909 is internally connected to oscillators ,jumpers and for the output using its 24pins. It shows that for the jumper j7 it connects internally to fout 0/1, hfout. For the jumper j2 it shows the connections to spi communications connected and the jumper j6 to ch0 and ch1 channels. The digital voltage acts as digital circurity in MCP3909 where it is the one where we get digital power supply. This pin requires appropriate by pass capacitors and should be maintained to 5V. In both the input channel levels this pin acts as HPF and where it controls the flow of signals. The logic 1 will activate both the filters for removing the DC offset from the system and this logic 0 will disable both the filters so due to this they allow DC voltage. This is analog circuit pin which is used to give analog power supply with in MCP 3909 an this pin requires exact bypass capacitor which gives ramp signal with rising and falling edges and it must be maintained at 5V. This pins are used for current measurements and where they initially take analog voltage as input and convert to current and this will have PGA for small input signal. The linear and the region where it characteristics of this channel are dependent on PGA gain. It relates to maximum voltage of 470Mv/G and the voltage range changes from 1 to 6 V with respect to Agnd. . This pins are used for voltage measurement and this pins initially take difference analog voltage input. The linear and specific behaviour of this voltage channel is maximum at 660mV with absolute voltage 1V Here for the internal 2.4V reference the output is the reference in/out and with temperature coefficient of 15ppm/c. Here by applying the voltage to this pin from the specified range we can use external reference and these reference in/out pin uses bypass capacitor to AGND even when using internal reference.. This is the analog ground where all the ADC,PGA,POR and band gap reference are connected to ground and this is analog circuit. To have noise signal to be cancelled this pin should be connected to same ground as Dgnd with star connection. This is the normal ground connection where SINC filters, multipliers, HPF, LPF, digital to frequency convertor and oscillator; this is used as internal circuit connection. To have accurate and noise to be cancelled this digital ground should be grounded same as analog ground with star connection. The output pins that are connected to MCP3909 are frequency outputs that give us real power and the signal that we get when connected to oscilloscope is pulse where this pulse period is directly proportional to power and Fc constant. This pins helps us to activate the electro mechanical counters and also two phase stepper motor. The high frequency output supplies instantaneous real power information and out put is periodic pulse and where it is directly proportional to measured l power and HFC constant obtained by F0,F1,F2 logic gates and the output that obtained is the fastest output frequency. These oscillators will provide sine waveform with clock source and these oscillators are mainly used to give clock signal for master in the device. The clock frequency is given as 3.57MHz and this clock frequency value should range from 1to 4 MHz with out any error. In this to convert the signal from digital domain which has wide dynamic range we use PGA to do this function which is common thing done in wireless communication. To load normally input signal from analog to digital we need to increase the amplitude so to do this we use PGA. High resolution sigma to delta ADCs all have Programmable Gain Amplifier at input to the sigma to delta modulator is given as shown below The PGA on the ADs chip offer eight input ranges to ADC with 2.5 voltage reference, the eight reference voltages are 2.56V,1.28V,640mv,160mv,40mv.if reference voltage is doubled to 5v then full scale input for each range is halved. So the actual signal range for any PGA settings are given as, VREF*1.024/2(7-RN) where RN value is 111 when ref voltage is 2.5v The main use of PGA is that the noise in terms of micro voltage decreases when the gain increased. In effect the input signal is gained up but the noise is not gained up, so there is an improvement in signal to noise ratio. The pins reference sampling rate is given at 524 khz and capacitor value is fixed so there is no variation in reference current and any gain error that has due to resistance on reference input is also fixed. If reference current changes on sigma to delta the gain error that occurs also varies and the benefit of using ADC will be lost. The PGA for the ADC offers benefits of high resolution and low noise at high gain , but without the disadvantages of requiring regular calibration every time the range is changed. A buffered input and new reference sampling scheme avoid many of the problems associated with previous multirange ADC. All the delta sigma ADCs , registers, filters, multipliers are controlled by reset of master clear and this pin is also used to change their serial interface and behaviour or functionality. The logic 0 controls the ADC and registers in reset condition. The only one that uses power during master clear is oscillator. The microcontroller manufactures produce other design products so that they are related to their own design and in this we require another output pin. This condition or situation is correct for small design products where they have eight pins are fewer than that. This microcontroller has two output pins, one input pin , RAM flash and ADC module .For programming the microcontroller mode you need MCLR and supply pins(VCC and GND). To run or make the coding active we need mainly power supply and MCLR,microcontroller must see the difference between normal and program mode. Here the MCLR takes 12V to enter program mode and it takes external reset or input pin to enter into normal mode. The microcontroller design uses one pin for analog input and has other three outputs and it also requires an additional output, so for this reason the circuit uses MCLR pin as output. To make MCLR pin to act as output the microcontroller uses weak pull-ups. Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) is the process of sampling continuous analog signal and converting the signal into quantitized representation of signal in digital domain and all the ADC architectures will convert analog signal into digital representation. The conventional ADC process takes input signal x(t) into sequence of digital codes x(n) at sampling rate fs=1/t, where T represents sampling interval this sampling function is equivalent to modulating input signal by set of carrier signals with frequencies 0,fs,2fs †¦. The sample signal is expressed as summation of original signal component and frequency, here the frequency modulated by integer multiple of sampling frequency. The signal component at frequency in input signal cannot be properly sampled and such signals get folded in base band signal creating in this non-linear is referred to as aliasing . Anti-aliasing filters are therefore required to prevent aliasing. Many A/D converters have successive or continuous approximation register and flash converters operate at nyquist rate fn. These converters sample analog signal at sample frequency equal to twice maximum frequency of input signal. Sigma Delta AD converters do not digitize the incoming analog signal into digital sample of n-bit precision at nyquist rate, sigma delta ADC samples the analog signal by an sample ratio N resulting Fn One of the advantages of sigma-delta ADC over nyquist ADC is the relaxation of the requirements for the anti aliasing filter. The requirement of anti-aliasing filter for nyquist rate ADC require sharp pass band (fs) to stop band (fn) The sigma delta ADC contains simple analog circuits like voltage reference, comparator, integrator,summing circuit and switch and in this the digital circuit consists of digital signal processing which acts as filter. Now consider technique of oversampling in frequency domain when converting to dc signal it has quantization error up to  ½ LSB and this sampled data has quantization noise. If ADC is less than perfect or exact value its noise is greater than quantization noise so due to this its resolution will be small than n bits and its actual resolution is given by The sampling rate is chosen as Kfs then quantization noise is q/sqrt12 due to this noise will spread at bandwidth dc to Kfs/2 , So to reduce noise we use digital low pass filter at output with out disturbing the wanted signal. K is referred as sampling ratio and this sampling relaxes requirement on the analog antialiasing filter. Here the data rate is less than the sampling rate and to satisfy nyquist criteria and this is done by using low pass filter to reduce the bandwidth, this process can be done by giving Mth result to output with neglecting the remainder and this process is known as decimation by factor M. This M can have any value such that output data rate is greater than twice the bandwidth. If we use oversampling to improve resolution then the oversampling must be factor of 22N to get N bit resolution increase, the sigma delta converters does not require any large oversampling because it limits to pass band signal and shapes the quantization noise to fall outside the pass band as shown in figure. Here we have 1-bit comparator (ADC) when we use it integrator output, then sum the input voltage with output of 1-bit DAC which we get from ADC output.. The digital low pass filter and decimator at digital output are added to get sigma delta ADC and after this signal is given to modulator where it modifies quantization noise by making it to lie above pass band filter ,so due to this the ENOB is larger than the expected sampling ratio. The sigma delta ADC operation is like the input given as Vin which is dc and the integrator consistently move up and down at node A and here output of comparator is given to 1-bit DAC and summing point at node B. This negative feedback value will force the average dc voltage at node B to be equal to Vin. The output voltage from the DAC is controlled in the 1-bit data stream of the comparator output. After that when the input signal rises at Vref, the number of ones at the serial bit stream also increase and due to this there is decrease in zeroes and in the same way as the signal of Vref goes negative the serial bit stream at one decrease and at zero it increases. Here it shows that average value at voltage as input is in serial bit stream which comes from comparator and decimator and filter allow stream and give output. The data from the 1-bit ADC is not worth full when the given input value is single sample interval, so when we have more number of samples that are averaged will provide correct value. The sigma delta can not give detailed values in the time domain because of the single bit data output, so when the single input is near positive side it shows more ones than zero and in the same way when the input signal is near to negative it shows more number of zeroes than ones and if it is in midscale then it shows equal number of zeroes and ones. The below figure shows the output of integrator for two conditions where the first one is for input zero near the midscale so decode them pass output samples through low pass filter that averages every four samples this shows the bipolar zero. So from this we can say that if more number of samples are averaged more dynamic range is obtained. The sigma delta ADC can also be seen as synchronous voltage to frequency converter with the counter. If the number of ones in the output data stream is counted from the samples then the counter output will give digital value of output, this method applies only when have dc or for slow changing input signal. The 2N clock cycles are counted to achieve N-bit resolution and there by for getting effective sampling rate. Here noise shaping is explained in frequency domain by using sigma delta modulator. In this the integrator which is present in the modulator represents an analog low pass filter with transfer function H(f)=1/f and this transfer function shows that the amplitude not directly proportional to frequency. The one bit quantize gives quantization noise Q and it is given to output sum block. If we have input signal X and output signal Y the value that comes out of summing point is X-Y and after that it is multiplied by the transfer function and this is given as, From the equation if we see that if f=0 the output Y reaches X with no noise , and at high frequency the amplitude of the signal reaches zero and noise value reaches Q. So due to this the analog filter has signal effect on low pass and high pass effect on noise Q. This filter does noise shaping at given frequency in delta sigma model and higher order filter gives more attenuation in sigma delta modulators but some precautions should be taken. We get good quantization noise and best ENOB for given sample when we have more integrator and summing points in sigma delta modulator. This figure is giving the relationship between order of sigma delta modulator and oversampling amount to reach SNR. If oversampling is taken 60 then the second order capable of giving SNR of 80db and also gives ENOB value as 13 and in this we have filter to reduce noise and decimator to decide degree. This carries 13 bit outside but if you want to use additional bits, these added bits that carry signals has no useful value and buried in quantization noise unless the post filtering is used. The resolution can be increased from the 1-bit system by increasing the oversampling ratio or by higher order modulator. In the other method for the waveform output we give current and voltage as input which are 16bit and then given to second order sigma delta ADC where it oversamples input at frequency equal to MCLK/4 and with this it allows for wide range of input signals. The input current channel (channel 0) usable range is increased with the programmable gain amplifier and this is linked with block diagram of MCP3909 and gives in detail of its signal processing blocks. To cancel the system offset on both the channels we use to high pass filter and from output of filter we get voltage and current, so when calculating power we should not get any offset. As this signals are not having DC offset so the averaging technique is used to give active power output. The power signal at we get after filtering is active power output it is DC component and for averaging technique use sine and non-sine waveform after this the ADC takes real power to give output pulse where the frequency is directly proportional to real power. The frequency present at FOUT 0, FOUT1 outputs are used to drive counters and stepper motor which shows power consumed. Every pulse from F0, F1, F2 settings are used to give fixed amount of energy , the HFOUT has less integration and high frequency to represent power signal and due to less time it helps the user to get values fastly under steady condition. . For the current and voltage transducers the MCP3909 analog inputs are connected and each pin has specifications like it should pass from 5kV to 500V contact charge. The differential input is given for both the channels to reduce noise and absolute voltage should be kept at 1V related to AGND so this can do error measurement. The common mode signal is taken to respect both last condition and input voltage difference range and for good common mode ration to should be referred to ground. The current channel has PGA gain to measure small signal with out other signal. The maximum differential voltage we have at channel0 is 470mV/Gain. The maximum voltage fro channel1 is 660mV. For channel 0 gain selection is given as, This MCP3909 has internally POR to check supply voltage AVdd and this check when the systems power is on or off. This POR has built in hysteresis and timer to check potential ripple and noise on power supply. For this the threshold voltage is typically set to 4V. The MCP3909 is kept in reset state if the supply voltage falls less than threshold voltage and hysteresis value is 200mV to prevent glitches. Once the power is on the internal timer stop sending the pulse with MCLK=3.58MHz there by preventing potential metastability. For calculating the active power the MCP3909 use digital filter which is first order IIR filter where we can extract real power (DC component) from the power signal. Since the input power signal has harmonic content. We get ripples from the filter output at line of frequency when the filter is not ideal. To reduce the noise for line frequency at 50Hz we use cut off frequency as input clock (MCLK=3.58 MHz). The rejection of frequency component will be more than 20db. In this at the frequency converter the output of filter is stored and then it is helpful to compare threshold for Fout0/1 and HFout and each time threshold is crossed we get pulse. The Fout0/1 require more energy to get output pulse than HFout , like integration period and as this acts as filter the output ripple or noise is minimum. The threshold or transfer function of HFout and Fout0/1 are different to each other. The threshold energy or transfer function are different to each other , the Fout0/1 output frequencies are quite low in order to allow integration. In this synchronous serial transmission clock is shared between sender and receiver or the sender gives timing signal so that the receiver knows when to read next bit of data. In this serial transmission if we do not have data to send then fill character is sent instead of data so to keep transmission continually, these synchronous communication is efficient because in these we have only data transmission between sender and receiver.. for example the synchronous transmission is used between printer and fixed device where data is sent in one set of wire and clock is sent in different wire. This RS 232 is asynchronous serial communication method which is used for computers and others, it is called as asynchronous because there is no synchronizing clock present like which is in SPI where it is serial protocol, the serial protocol is such that it automatically synchronize itself. We can use RS 232 to easily create data link between boards and standard PC, you can makes data loggers that read analog value from ADC and give it to PC this is done by writing program that shows data with using graphs. In serial communication the byte is sent or transmitted one bit at time but in parallel communication the whole data like byte (8 bit) transmitted at a time. So for that we use parallel communication to send data in shorten distance like between graphic card and CPU and these parallel can have say many wires as possible , but serial communication uses one wire to transfer data so it is used for long distance. In series the logic level changes with the bit being transmitted (0 or 1) and to know which is start bit and end bit in byte we need to add synchronize line and note the value of data line when the clock line is high but this is the way the serial buses like SPI work . UART is not having clock because it is asynchronous but start bit and stop bit are used to synchronize the incoming data. When the word is in transmission start bit is added at start of each word and this tells the receiver that data is read to sent and forces the receiver clock to be synchronous with clock of transmitter. These two must not have same frequency drift but can have same clock. After the start bit is sent each bit in word are given least significant bit (LSB) and each bit from transmitter is sent with same time and receiver is in half way to check that bit is one or zero. The sender will not know when receiver looks at the bits but sender knows when the clock says to begin to send next bit of word. When the complete data word is sent the transmitter adds parity bit and at the receiver uses this parity bit for error checking and at last the one stop bit is sent by the transmitter, if the receiver does not receive the stop bit when it is supposed to be the UART thinks the entire word to be garbled and reports framing error to host when data word is read. This framing error occurs because the sender and receiver clocks are not running at same speed. Whether the data is sent or not the UART automatically discard start, stop and parity bit and if another word is coming the start bit for new word comes as soon as the stop bit for existing word been sent RS 232 In this it has two data line like RX and TX , where TX is the wire where data is sent out to other device and RX is the line in which other device put data it needs to send. We know that high = 5v and low =0v for MCU boards and this RS 232 has high=12v and low=-12v. So to make RS 232 to interface with MCU which understands 0 to 5 volts we use MAX232. As RS232 has no clock line for synchronization perfect timing is needed so transmissions are carried out in certain speed which is bits per second and number of bits transmitted per second is know as baud rate. Some standard rates are 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, etc. RS 232 Level conversion As seen above the RS232 signals differ from signals in MCU, this level converter will convert RS 232 signals from -12 to 12 volts from PC to signal 0 to 5 volts to fed to MCU. It is good to check the operation so we use converter to see its working nature, so for this we need Hyper-terminal windows software which is used to open COM port and to send and receive textual data. For testing we need to connect output RX/TX together so data written to COM ports to enter our circuit and converted to MCU board signal level. After this understand the USART of AVR Microcontroller and write code to activate USART to send and receive data, like other microcontrollers AVR also has main hardware for serial communication this is called USART. In this USART hardware you need to write data to one of registers. Clock generation. This generator generates the base clock for transmitter and receiver, this USART supports four modes of clock operation 1. Normal Asynchronous, 2. Double speed asynchronous, 3. Master synchronous and 4.slave synchronous mode. The UMSEL bit in the UCSRC (control and status register) is the one that selects between synchronous and asynchronous operation. Double speed(asynchronous mode) is controlled by U2X found in UCSRA register. When UMSEL=1 the data direction register for the XCK controls weather the clock source is internal (master mode) or external (slave mode) and this is shown in block diagram Txclk- transmitter clock(internal signal) Rxclk receiver clock(internal signal) Xcki used for synchronous slave operation Xcko used for synchronous master operation Fcso- system clock Baud rate generator The USART Baud rate register and down counter are connected as programmable prescaler or baud rate generator. The down counter which is running at the system clock(fosc) is loaded with UBRR value each time the counter has counted down to zero and clock is generated each time counter reaches zero and the clock generated is the baud rate generator clock output = fosc/(UBRR+1). The transmitter divides the baud rate generator clock output by 2,8.16 depending on the mode and this baud rate generator is directly used by receiver clock and data recovery units. The baud rate generator equations are given as, Operating mode Calculating baud rate Calculating UBRRvalue Asynchronous normal mode Baud= fosc/(UBRR+1)16 UBRR= fosc/16baud   1 Asynchronous double speed mode Baud= fosc/(UBRR+1)8 UBRR= fosc/8baud   1 Synchronous master mode Baud= fosc/(UBRR+1)2 UBRR= fosc/2baud   1 External clock The synchronous mode operation is done by using external clock and external clock input from XCK is sampled by synchronous register to reduce change in stability and the output from synchronous register must pass through edge detector before it is used by transmitter and receiver. This process includes two CPU clock period delay and its frequency is given as FXCK USART of AVR The USART of AVR is connected to CPU by these six registers UDR- USART Data Register: basically this is not one but two register , when you read it data is stored in receiver buffer and when you write it gives to transmitter buffer. UCSRA: USART Control and Status Register: as it name says it stores some status about USART and there are some of this kind like UCSRB and UCSRC. UBRRH and UBRRL: This is USART baud rate register, it i s16 bit wide so UBRRH is high byte and UBRRL is low byte . To write programs with using USART you need to study about each register, the seen behind using USART is same with other internal peripheral. now we will describe each registers clearly This bit is set when USART completed receiving byte from host and program should read from UDR and this flag bit is set when unread data is present in receiver buffer and gets cleared when receiver buffer is empty. If the receiver is disabled, the receiver buffer is flushed and the RXC will completely zero. Bit 6- TXC: transmit complete This bit is set 1 when USART has completed transmitting byte to host and program can write new data to USART through UDR. The transmit flag bit is cleared automatically when TXC interrupt is executed. Bit 5 UDRE USART Data Register Empty The UDRE flag first tells us that the transmit buffer (UDR) is ready to

WorldCom and The Mississippi Scheme Scandals Essay example -- Finance A

WorldCom and The Mississippi Scheme are both large financial scandals that have occurred. WorldCom was a telecommunication company that overstated their cash flow by reporting $7.6 billion in operating expenses as capital expenses. WorldCom is the largest accounting scandal in US history as of March 2002. The Mississippi Scheme was a business scheme that destroyed the economy of France during the 1700’s. The scheme involved the loss of paper money’s purchasing power as a result of asset inflation. Both WorldCom and The Mississippi Scheme were frauds involving manipulation to create higher stock prices and dubious practices within the organizations to keep the public unaware. Bernie Ebbers was the founder and CEO of WorldCom. He took a small telecommunications firm and transformed it into an industry giant before it collapsed into bankruptcy in 2002. The stock prices of WorldCom began to fall in 2000 and in order to prevent the price from falling further WorldCom made mass loans to Ebbers to stop him from selling his stock. He initiated the fraud and false reporting. He did not give accounting details as to how the false reporting should occur but he did repeatedly say it was important to â€Å"make the numbers.† Scott Sullivan was the CFO and on the board of directors of WorldCom. He oversaw the conspiracy to hide operating expenses in order to improve reported profits of the company. He advised Bernie Ebbers to inform the public of the WorldCom’s deteriorating situation but Sullivan’s advice was not taken. Ebbers had instructed Sullivan to adjust the accounting numbers. David Myers was the controller of WorldCom. He instructed the accounting department to make billions of dollars in adjustments to financial state... ...t themselves. The Duke de Bourbon and the Prince de Conti were members of the council of the regency. They abused their positions and their influence to see that measures were taken to get the shares to rise while in their hands in order to make huge profits. This is similar to Ebbers and Sullivan selling shares of stock in 2000 when they had inside information that the stock price would be falling. Ebbers was offered a loan instead of selling his shares, though. WorldCom and the Mississippi Scheme were both major financial scandals of their time. These scandals have similarities and differences. WorldCom was the second largest phone company in the United States as of 1998. The Mississippi Scheme was a plan that affected every household in France during the 1700’s. Both scandals would never have occurred if the people in charge would not have been fraudulent.

cuban women :: essays research papers

As research on women has progressed, we have learned that there is no uniform relationship between level of economic development and women's labor force participation. We have also discovered that women have not been and are not as passive and subservient to men as cultural constructs, literature, and discourse convey. Although women in the 19th century worked, like 20th century women in most of the world, they earned less than men. The feminization of poverty is not new. It also proves to be persistent, even when women produce for the global economy and even when men's work evolves around their wives. Women's active role in the economy is not rooted in feminism. Nor is it the result or basis of "liberation." Rather, it typically is grounded in social, economic, and political necessity. By becoming more involved in the public sphere, by becoming more active in civil society and the communities where they live, women throughout Latin America are helping to bring about chang e. For the revolutionaries in Cuba, â€Å"the revolution accomplished many of their goals: capitalism was abolished and socialism was installed, eroding class distinctions and eliminating private property, the working conditions improved, women’s rights improved, labor unions were recognized, the military became more modern and advanced, political order was restored, and the status of the country improved from dependent to independent†(Alexander, 76). For the people of Cuba, therefore, the revolution can be viewed as a success, but for America, the result was a failure. Latin America is one of the poorest and underdeveloped sections of the world. Because of this fact, it is difficult for its nations to compete and thrive in the world market with modern nations as they struggle to industrialize and improve their status. Cuba's progress towards equality for women â€Å"can be summed up in a few eloquent statistics. In 1953 Cuban women made up only 19.2% of the workforce, but by 1999 this figure had increased to an impressive 43.2%. Today 60% of university graduates are women and of these 49% are science graduates. As for medicine, traditionally a bastion of male domination, no less than 74% of the graduates are women†(Berbeo, 24). Women in pre-Revolutionary Cuba had â€Å"achieved a more respectable status vis-à  -vis men than women in any other Latin American country, with the possible exceptions of Argentina and Uruguay†(Alexander, 82). With regard to political rights, Cuban women received the vote in 1934.

U.s Monetary Policy In 1995 :: essays research papers

U.S Monetary Policy in 1995 When Alan Greenspan presented the Federal Reserve's semi-annual report on monetary policy to the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy, the Committee on Banking and Financial Services, and the U.S. House of Representatives on February, Dr. Greenspan touted a cautionary yet favorable view of the U.S. economy. He states that "With inflationary pressures apparently receding, the previous degree of restraint in monetary policy was no longer deemed necessary, and the FOMC consequently implemented a small reduction in reserve market pressures last July." (Greenspan, 1996, Speech) During the Summer and Fall of 1995, the economy experienced a strengthening of aggregate demand growth. According to Greenspan, this increase in aggregate demand brought finished goods inventories and sales into near equilibrium. The Fed's fine tuning of the economy seemed to be paying off. Greenspan had a positive outlook for the economy for the rest of 1995. He states "the economy, as hoped has moved onto a trajectory that could be maintained--one less steep than in 1994, when the rate of growth was clearly unsustainable, but one that nevertheless would imply continued significant growth and incomes." (Greenspan, 1996, Speech) Towards the end of the year, the economy showed signs of slowing. Fearing a prolonged slowdown or even a recession in the economy, and with inflationary expectations waning, Chairman Greenspan and the Federal Reserve cut rates again in December. (Greenspan, 1996, Speech) There are, of course, critics of 1995's monetary policy. Most of the criticism came in the early part of 1995 when the Fed raised rates again. In the article "Are We Losing Altitude Too Fast" from the May 1, 1995 issue of Time magazine written by John Greenwald, he explains that the economy might not be coming in for a "soft landing" like the fed predicts. Trying to sustain 2 to 3 percent growth might lead us into a recession. Mr. Greenwald explains how the Fed's actions in 1994 and early 1995 has hurt individuals and the economy as a whole. "Corporate layoffs are far from over," says Greenwald, "they generally accelerate when firms find themselves in an economy that is weakening." (Greenwald, Time, 5/1/95, p80) Unemployment and layoffs aren't the only thing to worry about according to Mr. Greenwald. The automobile industry and the housing markets are both getting hit in the pocket books. Paul Speigel, owner of a New York car dealership explains his woes by saying '"We're doing our best to keep up the volume by discounting, working on our customers, but the Fed's rate hikes have dampened the ability of many Chevrolet customers to buy that new vehicle."' John Tuccillo, chief economist for the National Association of Realtors states

Paraphrased Article Essay

â€Å"The Internet is becoming the town square for the global village of tomorrow. † Bill Gates, Founder of the giant Microsoft Corporations Ltd. Internet has arguably become one of the most indispensible parts of the lives of millions of people around the globe. There are not many laws which regulate the usage of internet for collecting information about the political processes, persona or policies. A common man can readily get involved in the political process by accessing the internet, reading various articles or news on National Politics and give his/her view on the same. The low cost model of the internet is an effective tool to involve millions of global citizens and make them active members in the political systems. The article ‘The Citizen Participation Gap: Can the Internet Help? ’ points out that the Internet is a medium which cuts across barriers and various sections of the society. It leverages from the varied social, political, and educational backgrounds of the users and thus adds multiple dimensions to the process of political participation. It is important to note that the usage of internet and age of the user are inversely proportional. As people grow old their internet usage goes down. For example,, most of the Internet users fall in the age group of 18-29 years. These users are active members of various social networking sites and many of them are online to investigate their political participation opportunities. Thus theoretically it could be claimed that it is the widespread reach and use of the Internet which has made it possible for young people ,to become the largest captive audiences to be involved in the process of political participation. One of the recent examples of this could be seen in the Indian politics wherein the ex foreign minister Mr. Shashi Tharoor garnered massive support from his followers on the social networking site twitter while he was forced to resign after being caught in a controversy with the Indian Premier League. Various online campaigns supporting Shashi Tharoor came up and people expressed their views in the entire process. â€Å"We are here to say, we support you Shashi Tharoor. Don’t let them pull you down for you will take our hopes and dreams for a better and brighter India with you. You bring to India everything we had ever hoped would change, and we stand by you,† said a viewer on the Support Shashi Tharoor website. In the past decade the internet usage among people has gone up. More and more people use the Internet,, and it is being regarded as one of the most powerful mediums giving direct access to a citizen in the political process. Muir believes that the Internet participation of people is the cause of powerful influence. People comment on national or international news, spread their views and comments in the form of blogs and to some extent are instrumental in deciding the course of political development of a news. Social networking sites like twitter helps people to be directly in touch with their favorite political leaders and give them their views and opinions. This proposal not only increased the participation of citizens but also improved the quality of the projects. Exploring the past and present trends in the use of internet, Coglianese concludes that the Internet will remain a powerful source of information and participation in the future. In conclusion it could be said that in spite of many view points against the use of the internet, the positive influence of Internet on the participation of citizens cannot be denied. The internet provides a common man a platform and gives them a chance to express their opinion and viewpoints, create their profiles, have a group of online supporters and influence changes in the political scenario. The amount of opportunities that the internet provides and individual to make friends and increase their social networks is massive. No doubt, there are a number of impediments to the efficient application of an Internet based government; nevertheless, these obstructions can be dealt with in the years to come.. By Uma Subramanian